Research publications

Initial situation and problem definition

The windpipe (trachea) fulfils two main functions: (I) it provides an airtight and mechanically stable passage from the larynx to the bronchial tree of the lungs for air transport, and (II) it facilitates the transport of mucus. Function (I) is performed by a tubular structure consisting of cartilage rings and longitudinal muscles, which provide lateral stability and longitudinal flexibility. This keeps the lumen open for breathing air. In addition, the inhaled air is moistened and warmed. Function (II) is a cleaning mechanism that is performed by a special mucous membrane layer (mucociliary respiratory epithelial layer). Here, mucus-producing cells and cells with tiny hairs (cilia) on their surface transport mucus and particles [2].

After an injury to the trachea, these functions are impaired by the insertion of a tracheal cannula. In Germany, 53,000 tracheal resections (replacement of part of the trachea) are performed annually [3]. A high proportion, around 40,000 patients, receive non-clinical care through a surgically created opening in the windpipe, known as a stoma [3]. This treatment has significant disadvantages: 1. poorer humidification and warming of the inhaled air, 2. poorer sense of smell and taste, 3. impaired voice formation, and 4. narrowing of the windpipe.

The gold standard for tracheal reconstruction is end-to-end anastomosis, in which part of the trachea is removed and the remaining ends are sutured together [4]. However, for this procedure to be performed, at least half of the trachea must remain in adults and one third in children, otherwise the operation cannot be carried out [5]. Nevertheless, complications occur in up to 20% of cases [6]. As the sutured ends of the trachea are subject to considerable force, this can lead to the suture tearing and the trachea shifting into the chest cavity. There is also a risk that the ends will not grow together properly, leading to scarred narrowing of the trachea, tracheitis, hoarseness, loss of voice and paralysis of the vocal cord nerves, as well as swallowing disorders [7]. Approaches investigated to date – including synthetic implants, constructs made from the patient's own tissue, donor tracheas and tissue engineering procedures – have not yet been able to replicate a functional cilia layer for mucus and particle transport. Neither this lack of transport function nor the high complication rate and shortage of suitable donor tissue currently allow for reliable use in cases of larger tracheal defects following clinically necessary resection. As a result, there is currently no implant available that can adequately replace the trachea.

It is therefore necessary to develop novel implants that mimic both the mechanical stability and the internal transport function of the natural trachea. The aim of the IGF project was therefore to develop a textile, functional and biomimetic tubular fabric. This fabric should have a cilia-like structure for active substance transport. At the same time, rigid, 3D-printed support structures, which can be integrated during the weaving process, were to protect the tubular fabric from collapsing. Both aspects serve to safely bridge missing or removed tracheal tissue. The ciliary movement should be achieved by electroactive piezoelectric PVDF fibres integrated into the tissue in the form of polarised naps. The ciliary movement is to be activated by the piezoelectric effect, which is triggered by the electric field generated by current-carrying conductors.

Development of tubular tissue structures

To produce a tubular fabric with cilia on the fabric surface, various variants were developed for a multi-layer fabric with naps pointing into the interior of the tube. The fabrics were manufactured using commercially available shuttle loom technology with a Jacquard unit for versatile adaptation of the fabric structure.

The tubular base structure was woven from polyester threads. Depending on the variant, cilia threads or a combination of cilia threads (piezoelectric PVDF or Nitinol threads) and conductor threads (silver-plated polyamide, Madeira HC40) were incorporated into the base fabric. The use of conductor threads was necessary when using electroactive PVDF multifilament threads or short fibres to stimulate cilia movement. When using one-way or two-way shape memory (SM) filaments as cilia material, no separate conductor filaments had to be incorporated into the fabric, as the SM filaments were directly contacted and conductive in order to initiate the movement of the cilia.

Development of biomimetic support structures

The human trachea has approximately 15 to 20 tracheal cartilages. They are horseshoe-shaped, have a diameter of 20 mm, with the open side facing dorsally (towards the back), and are approximately 4 mm wide and 1 mm thick. Their outer surface is flat and the inner surface is convex. Tracheal cartilages that can be integrated into the web (cartilage clips/support structures) should be manufactured using 3D printing and should be able to withstand a compression force of at least 1.2 N.

Based on this geometry, a total of 10 different models were developed. The differences in geometry resulted from variations in the leg geometry (C- and U-shaped), wall thickness and radius. The support structures were produced using photopolymer printing based on the stereolithography concept with an Objet 30 Prime from Stratasys in order to achieve the necessary geometric details. Exemplary structures are shown in Figure 1.

To examine the cartilage structures, clamps that meet the requirements for commercially available measurement technology were developed, designed and implemented using 3D printing. The clamps developed enable pressure loading in various anatomical positions of the cartilage segments (anterior-posterior & medial-lateral).

Integration of support structures into the tissue structure

Based on the previously presented woven tubular fabric, including the naps anchored in the base fabric on the fabric surface, a weaving structure was developed that could accommodate and fix the developed support structures at defined intervals in the base fabric. The integration of the support structures was achieved by weaving a fabric pocket over the entire circumference of the fabric. The dimensions (width and thickness) of the fabric pocket were adapted to those of the support structures, which were fixed between two layers of fabric and secured against slipping and "twisting out" of the structure. The number of support structures per defined fabric length was adjustable in terms of binding, and different clip widths could also be integrated into the tubular fabric by adjusting the fabric pocket size. The implemented demonstrator is shown in Figure 3. The inward-facing cilia and tissue pockets with the integrated support structures are clearly visible.

Textile physical analysis of the support and tissue structures as well as movement analysis

The average tensile strength of the human trachea is approximately 230 N [8]. The tubular tissue structures with integrated support structures exhibited a maximum tensile strength of approximately 4300 N. A yield strength of approximately 1400 N was determined. This means that the mechanical requirements of the human trachea are fully met. All support structures developed to prevent the trachea from collapsing exhibited a compression force greater than 1.2 N. In some cases, the target value was exceeded tenfold.

In addition, the influence of repeated or cyclic tensile loading on the position of the support structures integrated into the tissue was investigated. To this end, a load cycle test with 150 cycles was performed, in which a tensile load of up to a maximum force of 230 N (target value) was repeatedly applied, followed by relief to the initial position. A sample holder was developed and implemented for this purpose so that the tubular structure was loaded biomimetically across the entire cross-section. The results show that the support structures woven into the tissue pockets remained firmly fixed and did not "twist out" in the circumferential direction. The selected integration and fixation method thus ensures permanent positional stability under cyclic loading.

Motion analysis of the various patterns showed that PVDF fibres did not enable ciliary movement. However, the SM filaments with a two-way effect demonstrated repeatable ciliary movement. This approach can be used in the future to replicate the functioning of human cilia. As a further alternative approach, fabrics with parallel conductor threads were flocked with polyamide short fibres. Using an alternating electric field, intermittent cilia movement could also be simulated here.

Summary

A novel tracheal implant was developed at ITM that excellently replicates the macroscopic structure of the human trachea. The developed structure could be manufactured using commercially available shuttle weaving technology without any design modifications. To maintain a pressure-stable tubular structure, 3D-printed support structures were integrated into tissue pockets. Production can be carried out integrally and can be adapted to individual patients in terms of tissue length, support structure spacing, number of support structures and pressure stability. In addition, various concepts were investigated to replicate the microscopic structure in order to generate mass transport. The basis for this was the creation of polnop tissue and the use of piezoelectric PVDF fibres. It was found that PVDF nubs did not allow for movement on a microscopic scale. Ciliary movement was achieved using other actuator fibres such as nitinol fibres. Ciliary movement can also be achieved using flock fibres.

Acknowledgements

The project ‘Tubular tissues with rigid and flexible structural zones and mass transport for the biomimetic construction of the trachea (01IF22889N)’ is funded by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy as part of the ‘Industrial Collective Research (IGF)’ programme on the basis of a resolution passed by the German Bundestag.

References

[1]  Aleksanya, A.; Stoelben, E.: Laryngotracheal resection as an alternative to permanent tracheostomy. Pneumologie 73 (2019), No. 4, pp. 211–218. URLhttps://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/a-0809-0232

[2]  Udelsma, Brooks; Mathisen, Douglas J.; Ott, Harald C.: A reassessment of tracheal substitutes—a systematic review. In: Annals of Cardiothoracic Surgery 7 (2018), No. 2, pp. 175–182. URLhttps://www.annalscts.com/article/view/16458/16661

[3]  BVMe d:  BVMed provides information on tracheotomy and laryngectomy care. URL https://www.bvmed.de/verband/presse/pressemeldungen/bvmed-informiert-ueber-tracheotomie-und-laryngektomie-versorgung. – Update date: 19 May 2016 – Review date: 15 October 2025

[4]  Canzan, F.; Aggazzotti Cavazza, E.; Mattioli, F.; Ghidini, A.; Bottero, S.; Presutti, L.: Step-by-Step Tracheal Resection with End-to-End Anastomosis. In: Ghidini, Angelo; Mattioli, Francesco; Bottero, Sergio; Presutti, Livio (eds.): Atlas of Airway Surgery :  ACham: Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 75–82

[5]  Weme, Richard D.; Detamore, Michael; Weatherly, Robert A.: Immunohistochemical characterisation of rabbit tracheal cartilages. In: Journal of Biomedical Science and Engineering 03 (2010), No. 10, pp. 1007–1013

[6]  Damian o, Giuseppe; Palumbo, Vincenzo Davide; Fazzotta, Salvatore; Curione, Francesco; Lo Monte, Giulia; Brucato, Valerio Maria Bartolo; Lo Monte, Attilio Ignazio: Current Strategies for Tracheal Replacement: A Review.  In: Life 11 (2021), No. 7, pp. 618. URLhttps://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/11/7/618

[7]  Rettinge, Gerhard; Hosemann, Werner; Hüttenbrink, Karl-Bernd; Werner, Jochen Alfred: ENT Surgery : . 5th, completely revised edition. Stuttgart: Thieme, 2018

[8]  A. Berghau s: . In: Cardiac, Thoracic and Vascular Surgery 1987 (1987), Volume 1. URL https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/6218/1/6218.pdf – Review date 2025-10-15

Introduction

The size of the CF-CFRP (carbon fiber-reinforced plastics) market was estimated at USD 21.12 billion in 2023. It is projected to grow from USD 22.57 billion in 2024 to USD 38.4 billion by 2032, with a CAGR of approximately 6.86% during the forecast period (2024–2032) [1]. Due to their high specific stiffness and strength, CFRPs are widely used in the automotive, sports, leisure, and aerospace industries [2]. However, CFRP components are brittle under impact loading, which can result in catastrophic failure and severe splintering [3]. This brittleness raises concerns for the use of thermoset CFRP structures in safety-critical components such as wind turbine blades or automotive B-pillars.

Current hybridization concepts aim to combine materials with high stiffness, strength, and ductility [4]. Existing approaches integrate carbon fibers (CF) with stainless steel fibers (MF) or elastomer fibers (EF) using metal or elastomer films in fiber-metal laminates (FMLs), such as CARALL [5–8], or in elastomer-based laminates, such as KRAIBON [9–14]. Metal films offer higher energy absorption due to their plastic deformability and elongation at break of up to 20%, surpassing CFRP and carbon/aramid hybrid composites [15–17]. Elastomer films reduce hazardous splintering under dynamic loading due to their elastic deformation behavior [9]. While such multilayer systems improve impact and splinter resistance, they also carry a high risk of delamination [18]. Moreover, there is a lack of cost-effective and sustainable composites with enhanced impact and splinter properties that fully utilize the benefits of their individual components.

Objective

The goal of this research project was the simulation-based development of novel three-component hybrid yarns with micro-scale hybridization using three distinct material concepts. These yarns were then used to produce functional composite structures for sustainable lightweight applications. By strategically combining ductile metal fibers (MF), highly elastic elastomer fibers (EF), and high-stiffness, high-strength recycled carbon fibers (rCF), scalable composites with tailored mechanical properties were developed.

The developed hybrid yarns form the basis for application-specific composites with high energy absorption capacity and improved damage resistance.

Hybrid Yarn Structures and Related Composites: Development and Characterization

Development and Production of Hybrid Yarns Using Flyer Spinning Technology

Starting from the selected and characterized rCF and EF fiber materials with an average fiber length of 80 mm and defined blend ratios, the fibers were prepared using mechanical pre-opening and blending units. The pre-opened and pre-mixed fibers were processed using a lab-scale carding machine to produce card slivers of rCF and EF. Characterization of these slivers revealed a CF damage level of 10–25%, while EF fibers showed no length reduction.

To avoid damaging the stainless steel fibres during carding, card slivers were firstly produced that were either 100% rCF or a blend of rCF and EF. These were combined with 100% MF slivers to develop sandwich-type structures (rCF/MF or rCF/EF/MF slivers), which served as feed material for the drafting process. The slivers were drafted multiple times to enhance fiber blending and homogeneity. These drafted slivers were then used to produce hybrid yarns.

The ITM’s specialized flyer spinning machine was modified to optimize drafting mechanics, sliver feed, and machine settings to avoid fiber misalignment. Based on experimental investigations, optimal settings were determined, and hybrid yarns with a yarn count of 1500 tex and twist levels ranging from 40 to 150 T/m were produced. These yarns were characterized in accordance with DIN EN ISO 13934-1, evaluating unevenness, yarn structure, and tensile behavior, and were subsequently used to produce composite.

Manufacturing of Recycled Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Composite

Using the developed hybrid yarns, unidirectional (UD) composites were produced via the resin transfer molding (RTM) process. The hybrid yarns were wound under constant tension onto a frame and consolidated under optimized parameters. The resin system consisted of Hexion RIMH 135 and hardener Hexion RIMH 137.

Composite characterization followed standardized test methods. Tensile specimens were prepared based on DIN EN ISO 527-5/A/2, with tensile testing conducted according to             DIN EN ISO 527-4. The flexural properties were evaluated in accordance with DIN EN ISO 14125 and impact resistance was assessed using DIN EN ISO 179-2 (Charpy method). The compression-after-impact (CAI) performance was measured following DIN ISO 18352. Additionally, a custom test rig was developed to analyze splintering behavior using a ZwickRoell HTM 5020 high-speed testing machine. Puncture resistance was evaluated according to DIN EN ISO 6603-2.

Selected Results and Discussion

Fig. 1 presents the relationship between flexural strength and modulus for various twist levels in hybrid yarn-based composites at a constant fiber volume content of 50 vol%. Both a CF-filament-based reference composite and three UD composites made from rCF/MF hybrid yarns (90 wt% rCF / 10 wt% MF) were investigated, differing only in yarn twist (40, 80 and 120 T/m). The reference composite achieved 725 ± 35 MPa flexural strength and a modulus of 74 ± 8 GPa. Notably, the T40 hybrid variant surpassed these values, reaching 806 ± 18 MPa and 83 ± 4 GPa, respectively.

However, increasing the yarn twist (80 and 120 T/m) led to a continuous decline in flexural properties. The intensified helical structure reduces fiber alignment in the load direction, which weakens load transfer and overall flexural performance.

Fig. 2 shows the impact strength of composites made from rCF/MF hybrid yarns at varying yarn twist levels. Results indicate a trend of increasing impact strength with higher twist (40 → 120 T/m), from 85 kJ/m² to 117 kJ/m². This improvement is attributed to a more compact yarn structure, enhanced fiber cohesion, and improved energy absorption during impact. Additionally, the tighter fiber arrangement enhances load transfer and structural integrity by reducing the number of loose fiber ends, resulting in greater resistance to sudden loads.

Summary

As part of the IGF research project 01IF22916N, a complete, industry-ready process chain for producing three-component hybrid yarns from rCF, MF, and EF was successfully developed at the ITM of TU Dresden. The process chain comprises fiber preparation, carding, and drafting to form slivers, followed by modified flyer spinning to produce hybrid yarns.

Proof of concept was provided through the production of hybrid yarns with defined fiber volume contents and a functional demonstrator. Fig. 3 illustrates the full process chain from fiber preparation to demonstrator production from rCF, MF and EF at ITM. The resulting yarns ranged from 1500 to 3500 tex and were successfully processed into textile preforms. The resulting composites demonstrated excellent mechanical performance: a maximum flexural strength of 806 ± 18 MPa, flexural modulus of 83 ± 4 GPa, and an impact strength of up to 117 ± 17 kJ/m².

The results show that yarn twist significantly influences composite mechanical properties: moderate twist enhances flexural behavior, while higher twist improves impact resistance. By adjusting the yarn twist level, the mechanical performance of hybrid composites can be effectively tailored.

These novel hybrid yarns are particularly suited for producing cost-efficient, high-performance thermoset composites with complex geometries. Their application-specific performance and process-integrated production offer high innovation and market potential, especially in the fields of materials engineering, lightweight design, sustainability, and resource efficiency. For small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the textile industry, this technology provides opportunities to develop advanced fiber-reinforced products and establish themselves as key suppliers in sectors such as automotive, mechanical engineering, wind energy, aerospace, medical technology, and sports equipment.

Acknowledgements

The IGF project 01IF22916N of the research association Forschungskuratorium Textil e.V. was funded via the DLR within the framework of the program for the promotion of industrial collaborative research and development (IGF) by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, based on a resolution of the German Bundestag. We thank the aforementioned institutions for their financial support.

References

1. WiseGuyReports. (n.d.). CF & CFRP Market Report. Accessed on 29.07.2025, https://www.wiseguyreports.com/de/reports/cf-cfrp-market
2. E. Witten; V. Mathes; M. Sauer; M. Kühnel: Composites-Marktbericht 2023 - Marktentwicklun-gen, Trends, Ausblicke und Herausforderungen. Deutsche Fachverband für Faserverbundkunststoffe/Composites - AVK, 2023
3. J. Striewe; C. Reuter; K.-H. Sauerland; T. Tröster: Manufacturing and crashworthiness of fabric-reinforced thermoplastic composites. Thin-Walled Structures 123(2018), Pp. 501-508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2017.11.011
4. D. Nestler: Beitrag zum Thema Verbundwerkstoffe - Werkstoffverbunde: Status quo und For-schungsansätze. Chemnitz: Univ.-Verl., 2014. – ISBN 9783944640129
5. ZHU, W.; XIAO, H.; WANG, J.; LI, X.: Effect of Different Coupling Agents on Interfacial Properties of Fibre-Reinforced Aluminum Laminates. Materials (Basel, Switzerland) 14(2021)4. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14041019
6. GUPTA, R. K.; MAHATO, A.; BHATTACHARYA, A.: Notch Shape Influence on Damage Evolution of Al/CFRP Laminates Under Tensile Loading: Experimental and Numerical Analysis. Appl Compos Mater (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-022-10051-2
7. TRZEPIECIŃSKI, T.; NAJM, S. M.; SBAYTI, M.; BELHADJSALAH, H.; SZPUNAR, M.; LEMU, H. G.: New Advances and Future Possibilities in Forming Technology of Hybrid Metal–Polymer Composites Used in Aerospace Applications. J. Compos. Sci. 5(2021)8, Pp. 217 f. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5080217
8. PONNARENGAN, H.; KAMARAJ, L.; BALACHANDRAN, S. R.; KATHAR BASHA, S.: Evaluation of me-chanical properties of novel GLARE laminates filled with nanoclay. Polym. Compos. 42(2021)8, Pp. 4015-4028. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26113
9. KRAIBON®: https://www.kraiburg-rubber-compounds.com/kraibon (31.07.2025)
10. D. Düring; L. Weiß; D. Stefaniak; N. Jordan; C. Hühne: Low-velocity impact response of composi-te laminates with steel and elastomer protective layer. Composite Structures 134(2015), Pp. 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.08.001
11. E. Stelldinger; A. Kühhorn; M. Kober: Experimental evaluation of the low-velocity impact dama-ge resistance of CFRP tubes with integrated rubber layer. Composite Structures 139(2016), Pp. 30-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.11.069
12. E. Sarlin; M. Apostol; M. Lindroos; V.-T. Kuokkala; J. Vuorinen; T. Lepistö; M. Vippola: Impact properties of novel corrosion resistant hybrid structures. Composite Structures 108(2014), Pp. 886-893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2013.10.023
13. LI, Z.; ZHANG, J.; JACKSTADT, A.; KÄRGER, L.: Low-velocity impact behavior of hybrid CFRP-elastomer-metal laminates in comparison with conventional fiber-metal laminates. 02638223 287(2022), Pp. 115340 f. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.115340
14. FLEISCHER, J. (HRSG.): Intrinsische Hybridverbunde für Leichtbautragstrukturen – Grundlagen der Fertigung, Charakterisierung und Auslegung. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Vieweg, 2021. – ISBN 978-3-662-62832-4
15. Y. Swolfs; P. De Cuyper; M.G. Callens; I. Verpoest; L. Gorbatikh: Hybridisation of two ductile materials Steel fibre and self-reinforced polypropylene composites. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 100(2017), Pp. 48-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2017.05.001
16. H.J. Koslowski: Chemiefaser-Lexikon. Deutscher Fachverlag, 2008. – ISBN 3871508764
17. H. Schürmann: Konstruieren mit Faser-Kunststoff-Verbunden. Springer-Verlag GmbH, 2007. – ISBN 3540721894
18. N. Montinaro; D. Cerniglia; G. Pitarresi: Evaluation of interlaminar delaminations in titanium-graphite fibre metal laminates by infrared NDT techniques. NDT & E International 98(2018), Pp. 134-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2018.05.004