Research publications

Introduction

Textile membrane structures have established themselves as lightweight, flexible, and yet high-performance components in numerous technical applications, such as architectural roof and facade systems, mobile and stationary protective structures, and maritime environments. However, their load-bearing capacity and fatigue strength depend crucially on static and dynamic stresses, as local overloads and undetected damage can lead to sudden structural failure in extreme cases. In practice, inspections have so far been based predominantly on visual checks and selective measurements, which do not allow for continuous condition monitoring or comprehensive evaluation of membrane behavior and are therefore of limited value for predictive maintenance. Against this background, the IGF project 01IF22600N aims to transform textile membranes into intelligent, sensor-functionalized structures that record their own stress and damage status in real time. To this end, a textile sensor structure [1] is integrated into the membrane structure [2, 3] and its measured values are evaluated in combination with simulation results [4, 5] using AI-based algorithms [6].

Objective

The central goal of the project was to create a fiber sensor-based monitoring system that determines the full-surface stress distribution of textile membranes and can thus provide indications of fatigue and structural damage. To this end, thread-like sensor materials were examined for their elongation properties and suitability for use in combination with the membrane. Using the preferred variants, weaving patterns for fabrics with integrated sensor and energy supply structures were developed and manufactured. These patterns were mechanically characterized while simultaneously recording the sensor measurements. At the same time, the global strain distribution was simulated for the test scenarios. Based on this data, algorithms were developed that calculate the global strain distribution from the sensor measurements and output it in real time, e.g., as a heat map. The developed system was successfully implemented and integrated into a functional demonstrator.

Results

Thread-shaped sensor materials

Silver-coated polyamide yarns, pseudoelastic shape memory alloys (SMA), and precision resistance alloys were selected as promising options in the search for a suitable thread sensor material. The behavior of the electrical resistance under tension, the temperature stability, and the suitability for subsequent textile integration into the membrane composite were investigated. Cyclic tensile tests up to 10 % strain were chosen as the characterization method and were repeated at various temperatures between -20 °C and 70 °C. As a result of these investigations, SMAs proved unsuitable due to their high temperature dependence and strongly non-linear resistance behavior. Both precision resistance alloys (Isaohm® / Isabellenhütte) and silver-coated polyamide yarns (SilverTech+® 150 / Amann & Söhne GmbH & Co. KG) appeared to be fundamentally suitable and were taken into account in the following tests, with precision resistance alloys being identified as the preferred option due to their lower temperature dependence and linear sensor behavior. A fine wire (LitzWire / Rudolf Pack GmbH & Co. KG) was selected for the implementation of the electrical contact network due to its good textile processability and low basic electrical resistance (<< 1 Ω/m).

Development and production of functional samples

Two approaches were pursued for the development of a functional sample. On the one hand, samples were produced using embroidery technology and the TFP process; on the other hand, the thread-like sensor and the textile feed line were already integrated into the semi-finished textile product during the weaving process. For the embroidered samples, a commercially available membrane (HEYtex tentorium 900) was used. Both the silver-coated polyamide yarn and the precision resistance alloy were applied in patches using the tailored fiber placement (TFP) process (Figure 1) in order to increase the sensor length and thus improve measurement accuracy. In addition, the sensor patches were applied in different orientations in order to detect stretching in different directions. At the same time, the silver-coated polyamide yarn Shieldex® 117, which is more robust in textile processing than SilverTech+® 150, was embroidered using regular zigzag and chain stitches without auxiliary thread.

For the woven patterns, a grid with weft and warp threads made of feedline and sensor material was designed, which was combined with the polyester base fabric in terms of pattern (Figure 2). This made it possible to create arrangements with sensors in the warp and weft directions, which later allowed the calculation of tensile stress in different directions. A total of three patterns were created, which differed in terms of the length and position of the sensors. The third variant was a hybrid that combined a woven supply network with sensor patches that were embroidered on afterwards. Two types of intersection points, with and without electrical contact, were created in the conductive structures and implemented using binding techniques. The samples were produced on a gripper loom with center transfer (Lindauer Dornier P1).

A key development step was the creation of practical contacting strategies for the sensor network. Conventional soldering methods caused damage to the textile base material due to high process temperatures, while alternative conductive adhesives initially exhibited excessive contact resistance in the kΩ range. However, by using an epoxy-silver conductive adhesive (8330S) with defined curing (160°C, 90 s, light pressure), stable, low-resistance contacts could be achieved both within the fabric and at the edges of the goods; in combination with crimp contacts, a mechanically robust and electrically reliable connection to external measurement technology was achieved.

Coating of the textile semi-finished product with integrated sensor structure

The functionalized fabrics were then coated with a PVC paste (plus 5% bonding agent) provided by the industry partner using a LineCoater from COATEMA (Figure 3). It was found that both integrally woven (0.2 mm) and embroidered sensor and supply structures (0.7 mm) could be integrated into the membrane with a low application thickness, so that the basic mechanical properties of the membrane were only minimally altered, while complete coverage and electrical insulation of the sensor technology was achieved. Additional tests with transfer foils and directly applied PVC adhesive layers showed that manual or semi-manual coating strategies are also suitable for local or subsequent functionalization, especially for smaller membrane areas.

Characterization of the membrane with integrated sensor technology

The manufactured samples were first tested in uniaxial tensile tests. In addition to the basic mechanical properties, the electromechanical properties were also determined. Particular attention was paid to the influence of the integrated sensor technology on structural integrity. Tests were carried out in both the weft and warp directions. With a maximum force of 3810 N at 23.2 % elongation in the weft direction and 4100 N at 24.9 % elongation in the warp direction, the manufactured samples were at a similar level to the commercial product from Heytex (weft: 3780 N at 25.8 %; warp: 3920 N at 20.6 %). Accordingly, it was not expected that the mechanical performance would be affected by the integration of the sensor network.

Development of algorithms for full-surface strain state detection

Based on biaxial tensile tests of the commercial membrane, FE models were created for the full-surface simulation of stress conditions. In addition to providing a database for algorithm development, this also supported the selection of suitable sensor layouts. The modeling was based on shell elements with an anisotropic material model. Based on the calibrated material model, simulations were performed with randomly varied load positions and magnitudes, which formed part of the database for algorithm development.

The AI model underlying the algorithms was based on a regressive model. To this end, the previously simulated load cases were applied to the demonstrator. The resulting sensor measurements were used to train the model. The model was then evaluated using the parameters mean absolute error (MAE), root mean squared error (RMSE), and coefficient of determination (R²). For the functional demonstrator, which consisted of a square, flat membrane, high accuracy was demonstrated for position determination in the single-digit mm range. The amount of load was also determined precisely with a coefficient of determination of 0.9604. The system achieves ± 3 mm spatial resolution and ± 0.6 N force accuracy for demonstrator loads < 50 N and is scalable up to kN load ranges. Based on the determined values for the position and magnitude of a load application, the corresponding full-area stress state was determined using multi-stage k-nearest neighbor models. The resulting model showed a high regression quality with a deviation of less than 5% from the FEM reference. In addition, the model proved to be very stable in general and allowed the desired real-time determination of the stress distribution. For the functional demonstrator, the results of the model were visualized in real time on a display unit next to the membrane (Figure 4), so that the effect of applied loads was immediately apparent to the user.

Conclusion

In summary, the IGF MeMo project shows that PVC-coated PES membranes can be further developed into intelligent, real-time capable support structures by combining suitable sensor materials, textile integration strategies, and robust contacting and coating processes. The experimental results prove that the mechanical performance of the membrane is largely retained despite the integration of the sensor technology and that the functional requirements – in particular with regard to the measuring range, temperature stability, and long-term behavior of the selected sensor materials – are met. The project developed an AI-based regression approach that determines load positions and amounts in real time from textile-integrated sensor signals and derives full-surface stress states from them without requiring numerical simulations during operation. The approach is characterized by high robustness against sensor-related scatter and low requirements for computing power and training data. The underlying methodology is fundamentally transferable to other large-area, deformable structures with integrated sensor technology, for example in textile architecture, lightweight construction, or membrane- and composite-based structural systems, e.g., in the maritime sector.

At the same time, the investigations clearly show that the type of integration and contacting has a significant influence on the quality of the sensor signals: Inline-contacted, integrally woven sensors are technologically sophisticated and currently still limited in terms of signal stability, while embroidered sensor networks with clearly defined, easily accessible contact points deliver significantly more robust and easier-to-evaluate signals. Thus, the work not only provides a complete technical toolkit, but also a clear preference for further system development towards embroidered, hybrid membrane solutions.

In the field of mechanical and electromechanical characterization, it seems sensible to expand biaxial testing programs on functionalized membranes. This would allow for an even closer link between experimental and numerical data and extend the validation of the material and damage descriptions used in the FEM models to the sensor membrane system as a whole. At the same time, the algorithms for load localization and stress reconstruction based on the data available to date can be expanded to include additional load collectives, more complex boundary conditions, and additional failure patterns, so that the monitoring system will continue to operate reliably in the long term, even in highly variable application scenarios.

On this basis, manufacturing and retrofitting concepts can be developed with a view to implementing intelligent, self-monitoring membrane structures in various industries - from construction and protective and safety applications to the maritime sector.

Acknowledgement

The IGF project 01IF22600N of the research association Forschungskuratorium Textil e.V., Reinhardtstr. 12-14, 10117 Berlin, was funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy via the German Aerospace Center (DLR) as part of the program for the promotion of Industrial Collective Research (IGF) based on a resolution of the German Bundestag.

The authors would like to thank the aforementioned institutions for providing the financial resources. The research report and further information are available from the Institute of Textile Machinery and High Performance Material Technology at TU Dresden.

References

[1]   J. Mersch, C. A. G. Cuaran, A. Vasilev, A. Nocke, C. Cherif, and G. Gerlach, "Stretchable and Compliant Textile Strain Sensors," IEEE Sensors J., vol. 21, no. 22, pp. 25632–25640, 2021, doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2021.3115973.

[2]   K. Bremer, F. Weigand, Y. Zheng, L. S. Alwis, R. Helbig, and B. Roth, "Structural Health Monitoring Using Textile Reinforcement Structures with Integrated Optical Fiber Sensors," Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 17, no. 2, 2017, doi: 10.3390/s17020345.

[3]   E. Haentzsche, R. Mueller, T. Ruder, A. Nocke, and C. Cherif, "Integrative Manufacturing of Textile-Based Sensors for Spatially Resolved Structural Health Monitoring Tasks of Large-Scaled Composite Components," MSF, 825-826, pp. 571–578, 2015, doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.825-826.571.

[4]   T. D. Dinh et al., "A study of tension fabric membrane structures under in-plane loading: Nonlinear finite element analysis and validation," Composite Structures, vol. 128, pp. 10–20, 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.03.055.

[5]   T. D. Dinh, A. Rezaei, L. de Laet, M. Mollaert, D. van Hemelrijck, and W. van Paepegem, "A new elasto-plastic material model for coated fabric," Engineering Structures, vol. 71, pp. 222–233, 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2014.04.027.

[6]   J. Vitola, F. Pozo, D. A. Tibaduiza, and M. Anaya, "A Sensor Data Fusion System Based on k-Nearest Neighbor Pattern Classification for Structural Health Monitoring Applications," Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 17, no. 2, 2017, doi: 10.3390/s17020417.

 

Introduction

The size of the CF-CFRP (carbon fiber-reinforced plastics) market was estimated at USD 21.12 billion in 2023. It is projected to grow from USD 22.57 billion in 2024 to USD 38.4 billion by 2032, with a CAGR of approximately 6.86% during the forecast period (2024–2032) [1]. Due to their high specific stiffness and strength, CFRPs are widely used in the automotive, sports, leisure, and aerospace industries [2]. However, CFRP components are brittle under impact loading, which can result in catastrophic failure and severe splintering [3]. This brittleness raises concerns for the use of thermoset CFRP structures in safety-critical components such as wind turbine blades or automotive B-pillars.

Current hybridization concepts aim to combine materials with high stiffness, strength, and ductility [4]. Existing approaches integrate carbon fibers (CF) with stainless steel fibers (MF) or elastomer fibers (EF) using metal or elastomer films in fiber-metal laminates (FMLs), such as CARALL [5–8], or in elastomer-based laminates, such as KRAIBON [9–14]. Metal films offer higher energy absorption due to their plastic deformability and elongation at break of up to 20%, surpassing CFRP and carbon/aramid hybrid composites [15–17]. Elastomer films reduce hazardous splintering under dynamic loading due to their elastic deformation behavior [9]. While such multilayer systems improve impact and splinter resistance, they also carry a high risk of delamination [18]. Moreover, there is a lack of cost-effective and sustainable composites with enhanced impact and splinter properties that fully utilize the benefits of their individual components.

Objective

The goal of this research project was the simulation-based development of novel three-component hybrid yarns with micro-scale hybridization using three distinct material concepts. These yarns were then used to produce functional composite structures for sustainable lightweight applications. By strategically combining ductile metal fibers (MF), highly elastic elastomer fibers (EF), and high-stiffness, high-strength recycled carbon fibers (rCF), scalable composites with tailored mechanical properties were developed.

The developed hybrid yarns form the basis for application-specific composites with high energy absorption capacity and improved damage resistance.

 

Hybrid Yarn Structures and Related Composites: Development and Characterization

Development and Production of Hybrid Yarns Using Flyer Spinning Technology

Starting from the selected and characterized rCF and EF fiber materials with an average fiber length of 80 mm and defined blend ratios, the fibers were prepared using mechanical pre-opening and blending units. The pre-opened and pre-mixed fibers were processed using a lab-scale carding machine to produce card slivers of rCF and EF. Characterization of these slivers revealed a CF damage level of 10–25%, while EF fibers showed no length reduction.

To avoid damaging the stainless steel fibres during carding, card slivers were firstly produced that were either 100% rCF or a blend of rCF and EF. These were combined with 100% MF slivers to develop sandwich-type structures (rCF/MF or rCF/EF/MF slivers), which served as feed material for the drafting process. The slivers were drafted multiple times to enhance fiber blending and homogeneity. These drafted slivers were then used to produce hybrid yarns.

The ITM’s specialized flyer spinning machine was modified to optimize drafting mechanics, sliver feed, and machine settings to avoid fiber misalignment. Based on experimental investigations, optimal settings were determined, and hybrid yarns with a yarn count of 1500 tex and twist levels ranging from 40 to 150 T/m were produced. These yarns were characterized in accordance with DIN EN ISO 13934-1, evaluating unevenness, yarn structure, and tensile behavior, and were subsequently used to produce composite.

Manufacturing of Recycled Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Composite

Using the developed hybrid yarns, unidirectional (UD) composites were produced via the resin transfer molding (RTM) process. The hybrid yarns were wound under constant tension onto a frame and consolidated under optimized parameters. The resin system consisted of Hexion RIMH 135 and hardener Hexion RIMH 137.

Composite characterization followed standardized test methods. Tensile specimens were prepared based on DIN EN ISO 527-5/A/2, with tensile testing conducted according to             DIN EN ISO 527-4. The flexural properties were evaluated in accordance with DIN EN ISO 14125 and impact resistance was assessed using DIN EN ISO 179-2 (Charpy method). The compression-after-impact (CAI) performance was measured following DIN ISO 18352. Additionally, a custom test rig was developed to analyze splintering behavior using a ZwickRoell HTM 5020 high-speed testing machine. Puncture resistance was evaluated according to DIN EN ISO 6603-2.

Selected Results and Discussion

Fig. 1 presents the relationship between flexural strength and modulus for various twist levels in hybrid yarn-based composites at a constant fiber volume content of 50 vol%. Both a CF-filament-based reference composite and three UD composites made from rCF/MF hybrid yarns (90 wt% rCF / 10 wt% MF) were investigated, differing only in yarn twist (40, 80 and 120 T/m). The reference composite achieved 725 ± 35 MPa flexural strength and a modulus of 74 ± 8 GPa. Notably, the T40 hybrid variant surpassed these values, reaching 806 ± 18 MPa and 83 ± 4 GPa, respectively.

However, increasing the yarn twist (80 and 120 T/m) led to a continuous decline in flexural properties. The intensified helical structure reduces fiber alignment in the load direction, which weakens load transfer and overall flexural performance.

Fig. 2 shows the impact strength of composites made from rCF/MF hybrid yarns at varying yarn twist levels. Results indicate a trend of increasing impact strength with higher twist (40 → 120 T/m), from 85 kJ/m² to 117 kJ/m². This improvement is attributed to a more compact yarn structure, enhanced fiber cohesion, and improved energy absorption during impact. Additionally, the tighter fiber arrangement enhances load transfer and structural integrity by reducing the number of loose fiber ends, resulting in greater resistance to sudden loads.

Summary

As part of the IGF research project 01IF22916N, a complete, industry-ready process chain for producing three-component hybrid yarns from rCF, MF, and EF was successfully developed at the ITM of TU Dresden. The process chain comprises fiber preparation, carding, and drafting to form slivers, followed by modified flyer spinning to produce hybrid yarns.

Proof of concept was provided through the production of hybrid yarns with defined fiber volume contents and a functional demonstrator. Fig. 3 illustrates the full process chain from fiber preparation to demonstrator production from rCF, MF and EF at ITM. The resulting yarns ranged from 1500 to 3500 tex and were successfully processed into textile preforms. The resulting composites demonstrated excellent mechanical performance: a maximum flexural strength of 806 ± 18 MPa, flexural modulus of 83 ± 4 GPa, and an impact strength of up to 117 ± 17 kJ/m².

The results show that yarn twist significantly influences composite mechanical properties: moderate twist enhances flexural behavior, while higher twist improves impact resistance. By adjusting the yarn twist level, the mechanical performance of hybrid composites can be effectively tailored.

These novel hybrid yarns are particularly suited for producing cost-efficient, high-performance thermoset composites with complex geometries. Their application-specific performance and process-integrated production offer high innovation and market potential, especially in the fields of materials engineering, lightweight design, sustainability, and resource efficiency. For small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the textile industry, this technology provides opportunities to develop advanced fiber-reinforced products and establish themselves as key suppliers in sectors such as automotive, mechanical engineering, wind energy, aerospace, medical technology, and sports equipment.

Acknowledgements

The IGF project 01IF22916N of the research association Forschungskuratorium Textil e.V. was funded via the DLR within the framework of the program for the promotion of industrial collaborative research and development (IGF) by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, based on a resolution of the German Bundestag. We thank the aforementioned institutions for their financial support.

 

References

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2. E. Witten; V. Mathes; M. Sauer; M. Kühnel: Composites-Marktbericht 2023 - Marktentwicklun-gen, Trends, Ausblicke und Herausforderungen. Deutsche Fachverband für Faserverbundkunststoffe/Composites - AVK, 2023
3. J. Striewe; C. Reuter; K.-H. Sauerland; T. Tröster: Manufacturing and crashworthiness of fabric-reinforced thermoplastic composites. Thin-Walled Structures 123(2018), Pp. 501-508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2017.11.011
4. D. Nestler: Beitrag zum Thema Verbundwerkstoffe - Werkstoffverbunde: Status quo und For-schungsansätze. Chemnitz: Univ.-Verl., 2014. – ISBN 9783944640129
5. ZHU, W.; XIAO, H.; WANG, J.; LI, X.: Effect of Different Coupling Agents on Interfacial Properties of Fibre-Reinforced Aluminum Laminates. Materials (Basel, Switzerland) 14(2021)4. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14041019
6. GUPTA, R. K.; MAHATO, A.; BHATTACHARYA, A.: Notch Shape Influence on Damage Evolution of Al/CFRP Laminates Under Tensile Loading: Experimental and Numerical Analysis. Appl Compos Mater (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-022-10051-2
7. TRZEPIECIŃSKI, T.; NAJM, S. M.; SBAYTI, M.; BELHADJSALAH, H.; SZPUNAR, M.; LEMU, H. G.: New Advances and Future Possibilities in Forming Technology of Hybrid Metal–Polymer Composites Used in Aerospace Applications. J. Compos. Sci. 5(2021)8, Pp. 217 f. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5080217
8. PONNARENGAN, H.; KAMARAJ, L.; BALACHANDRAN, S. R.; KATHAR BASHA, S.: Evaluation of me-chanical properties of novel GLARE laminates filled with nanoclay. Polym. Compos. 42(2021)8, Pp. 4015-4028. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26113
9. KRAIBON®: https://www.kraiburg-rubber-compounds.com/kraibon (31.07.2025)
10. D. Düring; L. Weiß; D. Stefaniak; N. Jordan; C. Hühne: Low-velocity impact response of composi-te laminates with steel and elastomer protective layer. Composite Structures 134(2015), Pp. 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.08.001
11. E. Stelldinger; A. Kühhorn; M. Kober: Experimental evaluation of the low-velocity impact dama-ge resistance of CFRP tubes with integrated rubber layer. Composite Structures 139(2016), Pp. 30-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.11.069
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Introduction, problem definition and aim of the project

Carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) are increasingly used in lightweight applications due to their high stiffness and strength as well as low density, especially in aerospace, transportation, wind energy, sports equipment or construction. Global demand of CFRP is predicted to increase to 197,000 t/a by 2024, almost tripling compared to 2011. This shows an urgent need for solutions to recycle the high quality carbon fiber (rCF) in terms of the circular economy. This is necessary not only due to strict legal regulations, but also for ecological and economic reasons. In recent years, numerous research institutes and companies developed solutions for the reuse of rCF in the fields of nonwovens, injection molding or as hybrid yarns. However, the majority of these works involve the use of rCF in combination with thermoplastic fibers for thermoplastic composites. In the field of rCF-based thermoset CFRP, mainly rCF nonwovens made of 100% rCF have been so far developed. Since the fibers in the nonwovens mostly have a limited length and a low orientation and process-related additional high fiber damage occurs, with these materials only maximum 30% of the composite characteristic values of CFRP components made of carbon filament yarns can be so far achieved.

Currently, the matrix systems used in the field of high mechanical loaded CFRPs are predominantly thermoset. Such components exhibit high dimensional stability, high stiffness and strength as well as are suitable for the implementation of complex component geometries due to low-viscosity matrix systems. However, primary carbon filament yarns are particularly used for these components due to the insufficient properties of rCF. In addition to low sustainability, the utilization of these filament yarns result in at least 200 % higher cost. The production of primary carbon filament yarn requires a high-energy demand of about 230 MJ/kg with a CO2 emission equivalent to 20 kg CO2/kg CF. Here, a significant improvement of the CO2 balance is required to make a substantial contribution to the envisaged climate protection goals of the Federal Republic of Germany and the EU. For this reason, the focus of the project work is the development of novel, sustainable rCF heavy tows made of recycled carbon fibers (rCF) and associated manufacturing technologies for the implementation of cost-effective thermoset composites with high mechanical performance.

Acknowledgments

The IGF project 21612 BR of the Research Association Forschungskuratorium Textil e.V. was funded by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Climate Protection (BMWK) via the AiF within the framework of the program for the promotion of joint industrial research and development (IGF) on the basis of a resolution of the German Bundestag. We would like to thank the above-mentioned institutions for providing the financial resources.

Introduction and Objective

In Germany, both demographic changes in society and injuries resulting from trauma are leading to a high proportion of people with cardiovascular diseases or injuries to vessels and internal organs requiring treatment. Treatment of injuries to internal organs, vessels, or nerves usually requires complex procedures (anastomoses) that involve elaborate fixation and suturing. These complicated and elaborate procedures are often associated with long procedure times, which in turn directly correlate with increased complication rates [1-3]. Tubular plastic implants are increasingly being developed to bridge such defects. These single material structures do not allow tissue/ cell ingrowth. Therefore, they run counter to the concept of regenerative medicine, which aims to restore body tissues and cells. In addition, when the defects are filled, regeneration is often disturbed due to the structural-mechanical properties that are not adapted to biomechanics. Furthermore, the lack of interconnectivity of the pore spaces of the replacement structures prevents the cell ingrowth, cell growth, nutrient supply and the removal of metabolic products.

In the context of in vitro tissue engineering, in addition to static cell culture systems, dynamic systems are also being developed. These are based, for example, on continuous or pulsating fluid flows or on a cyclic stretching of a clamped cell support system or substrate [4]. However, a replication of natural mechanical growth stimuli is not possible with such bioreactor systems because, especially in larger structures, there is a locally increased flow velocity along the largest pores or only an overflow of the entire cell support system. Additionally, undesirable stress peaks and undefined distortions occur in the region of the clamps and supports in mechanically stimulated systems.

Since the native structure of the four most important tissue types (connective and supporting tissue, nervous, muscular and epithelial tissue) from which organs, such as bones, blood vessels, muscles, tendons and ligaments, are formed, consists of fiber-like constructs, these can be particularly well biomimicked with textile structures. With the help of pre-designed fiber arrangements, three-dimensional, complex geometries with interconnecting pore spaces can be built up. The cells can use these structures to orient themselves in their growth direction [5]. Therefore, fiber-based high-tech structures are particularly predestined to overcome the limitations of currently available implants.

Therefore, within the framework of the IGF research project TexMedActor (21022 BR/1) novel textile structures with material-intrinsic shape changing capabilities were developed for regenerative medicine with a variety of different application fields, especially anastomosis. The concept pursued envisages the textile-technological realization of structures with a shape memory effect. The textiles should be able to assume predetermined geometries in order to adapt interactively to defects and to simplify complex interventions to bridge or support defects in internal organs like vessel and nerves. Furthermore, these textiles are intended to enable electromechanical stimulation for the actively targeted stimulating of cell growth. In this way, regeneration is accelerated or even made possible in the first place, since the necessary stimuli for tissue- and cell-adapted growth stimulation are lacking, especially in the case of body tissues with weak or no blood supply, such as cartilage, tendons, ligaments, or in the case of wound healing disorders or chronic wounds. Furthermore, novel bioreactors based on the intrinsic properties of the textile structures will be developed, which use the mechanism of action for electromechanical stimulation to uniformly stimulate the cells at each site even in highly complex and large-scale cell carrier structures. Here, the mechanical stimuli originate from the material itself. This material-intrinsic stimulation represent a new method for optimal cell cultivation, by stimulating cell on the textile cell carrier structures without externally applied fluid flows or mechanical deformation. This is intended to overcome two recognized medical technology problems: 1) complicated, costly operations on internal organs, vessels or nerves that are difficult or impossible to perform with minimally invasive procedures, and 2) lack of tissue- and cell-adapted stimuli for promotion of growth in previously used replacement structures and materials as well as currently available dynamic cell culture systems.

Acknowledgement

The IGF project 21022 BR/1 of the Research Association Forschungskuratorium Textil e.V. was funded by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Climate Protection via the AiF within the framework of the program for the promotion of joint industrial research (IGF) on the basis of a resolution of the German Bundestag. We would like to thank the above-mentioned institutions for providing the financial resources. Furthermore, we want to thank the member of the “Projektbegleitender Ausschuss” (project accompanying committee) for their support during the project.

Introduction, problem definition and aim

Fiber-reinforced plastic composites are designed according to required stiffness and strength or impact and crash properties. Complex, overlapping load scenarios are only taken into account to a very limited extent. There are first practical approaches for realizing composite components, e.g. the B-pillar of an automobile [1]. In which composites (e.g., carbon fiber prepregs) are combined with metallic components (e.g. steel sheets) in order to achieve the necessary damage tolerance along with high weight-specific stiffness and strength. In such concepts, hybridization takes place at the macro (structural level) or meso (yarn level) level and requires extremely complex and cost-intensive manufacturing processes [2-4]. Furthermore, these components also have highly pronounced interlaminar interfaces, where complex stresses generate high shear stresses. As a result, premature structural failures occurs due to delamination [5-8]. In order to overcome these disadvantages and for use in future developments, a concept is developed and implemented in the project presented here. The approach provides the design of the combination of various fiber components by hybridization at the micro-level (within a yarn/fiber level), thus maximizing their property potentials. The use of recycled high-performance fibers also results in significant advantages over conventional composites in terms of sustainability, resource efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

The project aims to create a new three-component class of materials hybridized at the micro level for thermoplastic lightweight applications. By combining the reinforcing fibers such as carbon and aramid, it is possible to combine high stiffness and strength with high crash and impact properties by varying the reinforcing fiber proportions and fiber makeup in a way appropriate to the load case. Fig. 1a schematically shows the properties of state-of-the-art CF/AR hybrid composites (Fig. 1a bottom, highlighted by an ellipse) according to state of the art, from engineered yarns to be developed (top, area within the dashed lines) and the theoretical material potentials (top, colored lines), each depending on the fiber volume fractions. The systematic investigation of the influence of the material-specific fiber volume fractions for a scalable composites design was carried out in five stages (CF/AR or rCF/rAR: 50/0 %; 40/10 %; 25/25 %; 10/40 %; 0/50 %).

The development work focused on three main areas. The first focus was the further development of the process technology so that the composites based on engineered yarns exhibit high strength and stiffness due to low fiber damage, high uniformity and high fiber orientation. The second focus was the first-time implementation of the homogeneous blending of three fiber materials at the micro-level. The third focus was designing the engineered yarns so that outstanding, scalable stiffness, strength, crash and impact property combinations can be set explicitly for a wide range of requirements (Fig. 1a).

For the concrete realization of the desired goal, CF/AR/PA6 or rCF/rAR/PA6 hybrid yarns were developed using two material concepts (Fig. 1b) based on two yarn formation technologies (Fig. 1a) for the production of thermoplastic composites with outstanding, scalable stiffness, strength, crash and impact property combinations. The interrelationships between process parameters and material-yarn composite properties were analysed. A sound knowledge for the material-dependent design of the engineered yarns could be achieved. Furthermore, the best possible material and process parameters for specific applications was derived and a process guide was prepared for the control of the manufacturing processes for the SMEs. A detailed description of the development work can be taken from the final report.

Acknowledgement

The IGF project 21004 BR/1 of the Forschungsvereinigung Forschungskuratorium Textil e. V. is funded through the AiF within the program for supporting the „Industriellen Gemeinschaftsforschung (IGF)“ from funds of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action on the basis of a decision by the German Bundestag.